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Table 1: ¾«¶«Ó°ÊÓ efficiency (net to gross area) of multistorey office developments
Number of storeysEfficiency (%)
Two to four83-86
Five to nine79-83
10 to 1972-80
20 to 2970-78
30 to 3969-75
40+ 68-73
Table 2: Weight of steel per m2 of gross floor area
¾«¶«Ó°ÊÓ height (m)Steel to resist dead load (kg/m2)Steel to resist wind load (kg/m2)Total amount of steel (kg/m2)
506015-3575-95
1006530-8095-145
1507050-115120-185
2007575-175150-250
30075135+ 225+
Table 3: Office construction costs
ÌýUKUKAustraliaAustraliaAustraliaHong KongHong Kong
ÌýMedium riseHigh riseMedium riseHigh riseSuper high riseMedium riseHigh rise
Ìý£/³¾2£/³¾2A$/m2A$/m2A$/m2HK$/m2HK$/m2
Ìý(US$/m2) (US$/m2)(US$/m2)(US$/m2)(US$/m2)(US$/m2) (US$/m2)
Basic speculative air-conditioned720-1030n/a16801800n/a10,000n/a
Ìý(1130-1620)Ìý-1310-1400Ìý-1300Ìý
High-quality speculative air-conditioned945-14501300-170017501850195013,00013,000
Ìý(1480-2230(2040-2660)-1370-1440-1520-1680-1680
High-quality owner-occupied1200-14801750-225018501900205014,20014,200
Ìý(1880-2320)(2740-3520)-1440-1480-1600-1830-1830
ÌýHong KongMalaysiaMalaysiaIndonesia Indonesia Indonesia Phillipines
ÌýSuper high riseMedium riseHigh riseMedium rise High riseSuper high riseMedium rise P/m2
ÌýHK$/m2RM/m2RM/m2(US$/m2)(US$/m2)(US$/m2)(US$/m2)
Ìý(US$/m2) (US$/m2) (US$/m2)ÌýÌýÌýÌý
Basic speculative air-conditionedn/a12701690n/an/an/a15,000-16,000
ÌýÌý-510-680(575-600)(626-650)(900-950)(575-615)
High-quality speculative air-conditioned14-15,50014901910n/an/an/a17,000-19,000
Ìý(1800-2000)-600-770(650-700)(700-750)(950-1000)(650-730)
High-quality owner-occupied14,000-15,50022402660n/an/an/a19,000-21,000
Ìý(1800-2000)-900-1070(775-800)(800-850)(1050-1150)(730-210)
ÌýPhillipines Phillipines Singapore Singapore Singapore Thailand Ìý
ÌýHigh rise P/m2Super high rise P/m2Medium rise S$/m2High rise S$/m2Super high rise S$/m2Medium rise Ìý
Ìý(US$/m2)(US$/m2)(US$/m2) (US$/m2)(US$/m2)(US$/m2)Ìý
Basic speculative air-conditioned18,500-19,200n/a1900-20002000-2400Singapore n/aÌý
Ìý(710-740)Ìý(1350-1430)(1430-1710)Ìý(620+)Ìý
High-quality speculative air-conditioned21,000-26,00026,000-30,0002000-24002200-26002400-2800n/aÌý
Ìý(810-1000)(1000-1150)(1430-1710)(1570-1850)(1710-2000)(620-900)Ìý
High-quality owner-occupied28,000-32,00032,000-36,0002000-24002200-26002400-2800n/aÌý
Ìý(1080-1230)(1230-1385)(1430-1710)(1570-1850)(1710-2000)ÌýÌý
Table 4: Design criteria - building services
ÌýUKAustraliaHong KongIndonesiaMalaysiaPhillipinesSingapore
Occupational density1 person/10-14 m21 person/12 m21 person/10-14 m21 person/10-15 m2n/a1 person/10 m21 person/10-12 m2
Ventilation rates8-12 litres/sec/personn/a6 air changes/hour8-10 litres/sec/personn/a5-7 litres/sec/person5 litres/sec/person
Cooling loads25-40 W/m2n/a1 tonne/20-25 m2120-140 W/m2n/a24 W/m225 W/m2
Lighting level400-500 luxn/a400-500 lux500 lux500 lux500 lux average500 lux
Small power loads15-35 W/m2n/a20-30 W/m235-40 W/m2n/a10-20 W/m220-40 W/m2
Lift provision1/200-250 people, max wait: 30 sec1/2500-3000 m2, max wait: 30 sec1/3500 m2 (gross), max wait: 30 sec1/2-3 floors, max wait: 30-38 secmax wait: 60 sec1/2500-3000 m2, max wait: 30-40 sec 4/8 lifts/zone, max wait: 30 sec
Life safety systemsFire detection communications and alarm, pressurised stairs, smoke extract systems, firefighters' lifts, dry/wet risersFired detection communications and alarm, fire brigade communication, pressurised stairs, smoke extract systems, smoke isolated lift lobbiesFire detection and alarm, pressurised stairs, smoke extracts, sprinklersFire detection and alarm, duplicate pressurised stairs, dry/wet risers, sprinklersFire detection and alarm, smoke spill system, dry/wet risers, sprinklersFire detection and alarm, smoke control, firefighers' lifts, automatic fire suppression, emergency escape equipmentFire detection and alarms, duplicate pressurised fire stairs, sprinklers dry/wet risers, smoke isolated lobbies
Table 5: Design criteria - space planning
ÌýUKAustraliaHong KongIndonesiaMalaysiaPhillipinesSingaporeThailand
Occupational density1 person/10-12 m2 (nett)1 person/10-12 m21 person/10-12 m21 person/10-15 m2n/a1 person/10 m21 person/10-12 m2n/a
Planning grid1350 or 1500 mm500 mmn/a1200-1250 mmn/a1500-2000 mm600 mm1500 mm
Structural grid6 x 9 m or 9 x 9 mn/a8 x 8 m to 12 x 12 m8 x 8 m8.5 x 8.5 m6 x 9 m8 x 8 m to 8 x 10 m6 x 9 or 9 x 9 m
Floor loadings (office areas)5 kN/m2n/a3 kN/m2 (minimum)2.5 kN/m23 kN/m2n/a3.5 kN/m23 kN/m2
Raised floor requirementyesnoyesnononoyesno
Raised floor zone (if required)150 mm150 mm290 mm200 mm300 mm150 mm150 mmn/a
Table 6: Design criteria -floor plate dimensions
ÌýUKAustraliaChinaHong Kong IndonesiaMalaysiaPhillipinesSingaporeThailand
Floor plate preferred size (m2) 2500-3000n/a1500-2600up to 16001770-2000n/aup to 18001400up to 1600
Minimum economic floor plate (m2)n/a1200n/a1000800-1000n/a1000650-7001000
Maximum window to core depth no statutory limit, 11-18 m no statutory limit, 12-15 m statutory limit 15 mno statutory limit, 12-14 m no statutory limitn/ano statutory limit,no statutory limit,no statutory limit,
Minimum slab to slab height (mm) n/a35003350n/a3750Ìý10-15 m 12 m typical9-10 m tpical
Typical slab to slab height (mm) 3700-400038003800-400037253800-42003200300038503500
Minimum clear ceiling zone (mm) 450400n/a850 (from soffit)600-700350038004200-45003600
Minimum floor to ceiling height (mm)n/an/a2400 (office spaces)n/a`2500600n/a900 (from soffit)300-450
ÌýÌýÌý2200 (circulation)ÌýÌý2600240024002400
Typical floor to ceiling height (mm)2600-275027002600-270025202500-270027002500-30002700-28002600-2700
Typical external envelope to floor ratio0.26-0.420.420.35-0.500.35-0.450.4n/a0.33-0.450.4n/a
Table7: Elemental costs in eight countries
ÌýUnited Kingdom City of LondonAustralia Melbourne China Shanghai Germany FrankfurtIndonesia Jakarta Malaysia Kuala LumpurPhilippines Metro ManilaSingapore
ElementUS$/m2 (£/³¾2)US$/m2US$/m2US$/m2US$/m2US$/m2US$/m2US$/m2
Substructure156 (100)2035200751004585
SuperstructureÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌý
Frame and upper floors398 (255)17024573095145205190
Roof8 (5)in frame costin frame cost451020in frame cost80
Stairs55 (35)10in frame costin frame cost55in frame costin frame cost
External walls468 (300)225160480120115175280
Windows and doors 8 (5)55in wall cost40in wall cost1555
Internal partitions70 (45)501034010101010
Internal doors47 (30)10in partition costin partition cost105in partition cost10
FinishesÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌý
Walls55 (35)3525140 total3010355
Floors86 (55)4520inc floors/ceilings20103540
Ceilings70 (45)4015%2220151510
Fittings31 (20)2010401551520
ServicesÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌýÌý
Sanitary installations8 (5)in disposal cost5in fittings cost5555
Disposal installations8 (5)4515305152520
Water installations23 (15)in disposal costin disposal cost655in disposal costin disposal costin disposal cost
Heating/ventilating/ services equipment312 (200)190100310759060155
Electrical installations125 (80)10580190655075120
Lift installations125 (80)95100170958580140
Protective installations 31 (20)3040in H&V cost25201530
Communications installations 31 (20)10565101510-
Special installations47 (30)1020in H&V cost1030205
Builder's work in connection39 (25)--605101510
Preliminaries374 (240)195included25065included55150
Total2575 (1650)131089031158157609201420
Analysis of the model
ÌýElement cost (£)£/³¾2 gifa% of total cost
Substructure6 597 70097.746.76
Foundations: bored piles 30 m deep and 1.5-2.4m diameter; 500 mm thick ground slab Ìý4210 m2 @£370
Extra for two-level basement construction: diaphragm walls; insitu concrete frame and floors; waterproofing; drainageÌý8400 m2 @£600
Frame13 882 000205.6614.23
Insitu concrete shear wall construction to cores, average 250 mm thickÌý21 800 m2 @£115
Structural steel frame to upper floors and roof, allowance based on 90 kg/m2Ìý6000 t @£1,500
Additional secondary steelwork for trimming openings and so onÌý300 t @£1,800
Fire protection: mineral wool slabÌý87 750 m2 @£20
Concrete casing to perimeter columns at ground floor onlyÌýitem @£80 000
Upper floors3 461 00051.273.55
Composite floor construction: 150 mm thick reinforced insitu concrete suspended slab; galvanised steel decking; total design load 5 kN/m2Ìý61 400 m2 @£55
Extra for 7.5 kN/m2 loading to 5% of floor areaÌý3400 m2 @£10
Allowance for knocked panels in upper floor constructionÌýitem @£50 000
Roof369 6005.480.38
Composite roof slab construction: 150 mm thick reinforced insitu concrete; galvanised steel decking; PVC membrane; insulation; ballastÌý1920 m2 @£100
Extra for 7.5kN/m2 loading to plant areas: heavy-duty waterproofing membraneÌý1000 m2 @£20
Allowance for perimeter safety railsÌý176 m @£100
Allowance for plant bases and paved access routes to plant areasÌýitem @£20 000
Allowance for roof-level plant enclosures: structural steel frame; profiled aluminium raised-seam roof cladding; insulationÌýitem @£120 000
Stairs2 530 00037.482.59
Precast concrete escape stairs rising 35 floors overall: balustrades; handrails; finishes Ìý300 flights @£8,000
Precast concrete escape stairs rising two floors overall from basements: balustrades; handrails; finishesÌý16 flights @£5,000
Allowance for ladders and catwalks in plant roomsÌýitem @£50 000
External walls20 222 900299.620.73
Aluminium-framed full-height curtain wall: double-glazed units; solar control glazing; toughened outer pane; laminated inner; opaque glazed spandrel panelsÌý22 700 m2 @£800
Double-glazed Planar frameless glazing includnig secondary steel supportsÌý1150 m2 @£600
Cladding to roof-level plant rooms: structural steel framing; composite panels; blockwork backing wall; louvresÌý500 m2 @£300
Louvres as external walling to plant room floors including louvre screen to open roof-level plant areasÌý1750 m2 @£400
Cladding to soffits, silver anodised aluminiumÌý270 m2 @£270
Column casings, silver anodised aluminiumÌý500 m2 @£300
Allowance for entrance canopyÌýitem @£100 000
Allowance for mock-ups, testing and so onÌýitem @£200 000
External doors175 0002.590.18
Double-glazed aluminium frame exit and fire escape doorsÌýitem @£50 000
Motorised revolving doors: 2.5 m diameter; glass/stainless steel enclosureÌý2 @£35 000
Access doors to roof plant areasÌýitem @£15 000
Motorised security shutters to car park/loading bay entranceÌýitem @£40 000
Internal walls and partitions3 006 80044.553.08
Metal stud walls to lift shafts and services risers, two-hour fire resistanceÌý18 300 m2 @£90
Metal stud partitions, one-hour fire resistanceÌý10 550 m2 @£45
Allowance for partitions to basement, plant and storage areasÌý2000 m2 @£40
Blockwork backing walls to stone cladding in lobby areasÌý1000 m2 @£40
WC cubicles, including doors and ironmongeryÌý370 @£1,500
Full-height laminate-faced duct access panels to WCsÌý1750 m2 @£120
Internal doors2 070 00030.672.12
Single doors and frames to office areas: fire-rated hardwood veneered doorsets; vision panels; stainless steel ironmongeryÌý400 @£1,700
Double doors and frames to office areas: fire-rated hardwood veneered doorsets; vision panels; stainless steel ironmongeryÌý260 @£2,000
Double doors to riser cupboards:fire-rated full-heighted hardwood veneered doors; solid hardwood frame; ironmongeryÌý420 @£1,500
Doors and frames to plant room areas: steel doorsets; fire-rated where required; stainless stell ironmongeryÌý420 @ £1,000
Allowance for fire-rated access panelsÌýitem @ £200 000
Wall finishes73 40058.723.79
Stone cladding to entrance lobby wallsÌý100 m2 @£300
Plasterboard drylining to concrete shear walls in cores, emulsion paint finishÌý11 200 m2 @£40
Self-coloured render finish to lift lobby walls on upper floorsÌý5800m2 @£120
Drylining to perimeter columns in office areasÌý7800 m2 @£45
Glass-reinforced gypsum column casings to office areasÌý500 m2 @£300
Emulsion paint to circulation areas, plant rooms and so onÌý9800 m2 @£5
Ceramic tiling to toilets and cleaners' cupboardsÌý2900 m2 @£65
Floor finishes97 15077.725.01
Granite tile to lobby areas: lightweight concrete to make-up levels; screed; skirtings Ìý750 m2 @£170
Unvitrified ceramic tiles to WCs: lightweight concrete to make-up levels; screed; skirtings Ìý2230 m2 @£90
Carpet to lift lobbies and circulation areas: lightweight concrete to make-up levels; screed; skirtingsÌý4110m2 @£80
Floor finish to plant and ancillary areas: coloured epoxy resin; screedÌý3900 m2£25
Floor finish to loading dock, parking and rampsÌý1900 m2 £10
Allowance for matwellsÌýitem @ £20 000
Ceiling finishes459 2006.80.47
Glass-reinforced gypsum feature ceiling to entrance lobbyÌý750 m2 £200
Concealed grid plasterboard suspended ceilingto lift lobbies and circulation areas and bulkheadsÌý3400 m2 @£45
Concealed grid metail tray suspended ceiling to WCsÌý2230 m2@£40
Paint finish to sofitt of slabs to plant rooms, ancillary spaces and car parkingÌý5800 m2 £5
Acoustic installation lining to car park soffitÌý1900 m2 £20
Furniture and fittings1 075 00015.931.1
Allowance for water feature to main entrance lobbyÌýitem @ £75 000
Granite vanity topsÌý500 m2 £750
Allowance for fittings to WCsÌýitem @ £400 000
Reception desk Ìýitem @ £45 000
Main entrance and statutory signageÌýitem @ £100 000
Car park bollards, column guards, entrance barrierÌýitem @ £50 000
Rubbish compactor Ìýitem @ £30 000
Sanitary fittings324 0004.80.33
Allowance for sanitary fittingsÌý1200 m2 @£270
Water installations911 30013.50.94
Hot and cold water: boosted copper rising main; bulk storage; boosted cold water distribution; localised electric heatingÌý67 500 m2 @£13.50
Space heating and air treatment8 707 5001298.93
Gas installation Ìýitem @£40 000
Low-temperature hot-water heating: perimeter heating installation to offices; emitters; pipework; insulation; gas-fired boilersÌý67 500 m2 @£45
Air-conditioning installation: air-handling plant; refrigeration; chilled water distribution for four-pipe fan coil installation to offices; ductwork terminated at coresÌý67 500 m2 @£75
Toilet extract installationÌý67 500 m2 @£4
Smoke extract installationÌý67 500 m2 @£3
Car park and loading dock extract ventilationÌý1900 m2 @£50
Electrical installations2 545 00037.72.61
Mains and sub-mains installationÌýitem @£500 000
Power supply to mechanical plant Ìý67 500 m2 @£4
Low-voltage distribution in risers to office areasÌý44 300 m2 @£10
Lighting, emergency lighting and small power to landlord's areasÌý20 200 m2 @£45
Lighting and emergency lighting to car park and loading bayÌý1900 m2 @£20
Allowance for enhanced lighting to reception and lobbiesÌýitem @£75 000
Allowance for external lightingÌýitem @£150 000
Allowance for beacon and aircraft safety lightsÌýitem @£10 000
Stanby power installation; life safety systems onlyÌýitem @£150 000
Lift installations5 200 00077.045.33
21-person, 1600 kg lift serving 18 floors, 3 m/secÌý6 @£200 000
21-person, 1600 kg lift serving 35 floors, 6 m/secÌý10 @£280 000
10-person, 800 kg firefighters' lift serving 35 floorsÌý4 @£200 000
Goods lift: 3000 kg serving 35 floorsÌý2 @£200 000
Protective installations1 474 50021.841.51
Sprinklers: single level to all areas; common bulk storage; split landlord/tenant pumpsetsÌý67 500 m2 @£19
Dry riser installationÌýitem @£50 000
Hose reels including booster setÌý140 @£800
Lighting protectionÌýitem @£30 000
Communication installations960 00014.220.99
Fire-detection, voice alarm and public address system: analogue addressable with interfaces to mechanical plant, lift controls, sprinkler installation and building management systemÌý67 500 m2 @£9
Primary vertical containment and distribution for data and communications systems Ìý67 500 m2 @£3
Security installation: closed-circuit television and intruder detectionÌýitem @£150 000
Special installations1 525 00022.591.56
¾«¶«Ó°ÊÓ management system with lighting controlÌý67 500 m2 @£18
Fully automated facade cleaning cradleÌýitem @£250 000
Communications mast Ìýitem @£60 000
Builders work in connection1 086 00016.091.11
Associated builder's work: services ducts and risers; holes; sleeves; chases; bases; firestopping, and so on, allow 5%Ìýitem @£1 086 000
Preliminaries and contingencies17 592 200260.6318.03
Construction manager's fee, site supervision, multi-service gangs, site establishment and trade contractor's preliminaries, allow 17%Ìýitem @£13 594 000
Design and contingency allowance, allow 5%Ìýitem @£3 998 200
Total for shell-and-core construction97 557 0001445.29100
ÌýElement cost (£)£/³¾2 gifa% of total cost
Category A fit-outÌýÌýÌý
Wall finishes243 6003.61n/a
Vinyl wallpaper to drylining in office areasÌý20 300 m2 @£12
Floor finishes2 879 50042.66n/a
Medium-grade access floor, dust sealantÌý44 300 m2 @£35
Carpet tiles Ìý44 300 m2 @£30
Ceiling finishes2 436 50036.1n/a
Concealed grid metal tray suspended ceiling to office areas: acoustic quilt; fire breaksÌý44 300 m2 @£55
Fittings264 0003.91n/a
Manually operated blinds to office areasÌý8800 m2 @£30
Space heating and air treatment4 651 5068.91n/a
Extension of four-pipe fan coil installation into office areas: distribution ductwork; fan coil units; grilles and diffusers; insulation; condensate drainage; interface with building management systemÌý44 300 m2 @£105
Electrical installations3 012 40044.63n/a
Small power to office areas: under floor distribution with one outlet per 5 m2Ìý44 300 m2 @£25
Lighting and emergency lighting to office areasÌý44 300 m2 @£43
Communications installations354 4005.25n/a
Final connections to fire, smoke-detection, alarm and public address systems in office areasÌý44 300 m2 @£8
Protective installations708 80010.5n/a
Single-leve sprinklers to office areas with one head per 9 m2Ìý44 300 m2 @£16
Special installations310 1004.59n/a
Extension of building management system into office areasÌý44 300 m2 @£7
Builders' work in connection452 0006.7n/a
Associated builder's work: holes; sleeves; chases; bases; firestopping and so on, allow 5%Ìýitem @£452 000
Preliminaries and contingencies3 369 20049.91n/a
Contruction manager's fee, site supervision, multi-service gang, site establishment and trade contractor;s prelminaries, allow 17%Ìýitem @£2 603 400
Design reserve and contingency allowances, allow 5%Ìýitem @£765 800
Total for category A fit-out18 682 000276.77n/a
TOTAL CONSTRUCTION COST116 239 0001722.06n/a
Tender price inflation
Forecast for tender price inflation (%)
19971998
UK58
Australia32 to 4
China-5 to -10-5 to -10
Hong Kong12.715
Indonesia1 to 21
Malaysia55
Philippines1210 to 12
Singapore4 to 54 to 5
The table below gives forecasts for annual average changes to tender levels in the UK and Far East.